PARTNERS IN LEARNING

THE PHILOSOPHICHAL UNDERPINNING

The dominating figure in the effort to develop models for democratic process has been john dewey, who wrote how we think in 1910. Nearly all the theoreticians dealing with reflective thinking since that time have emphasized democratic process have by no means been homogeneous, nor have they followed Dewey in the same ways or even directly. For example, in the 1920s Charles Hubbard Judd (1934)emphasized academic scholarship. William gressive movement, emphasized social problem solving. George Counts (1932) stressed not only problem solving but also reconstruction of society. Boyd Bode (1927) emphasized the general intellectual processes of problem solving.

A society of reflective thinkers would be capable of improving itself and preserving the uniqueness of individuals. individuals’ way of reflecting on reality are what make their world comprehensible to them and give them personal and social meaning. Someone who is insensitive to much of his or her experience and does not reflect on it will have a far less richly constructed world than someone who takes a good deal of experience and reflects fully on it.

Hullfish and Smith maintain that individual differences are the strength of a democracy, and negotiating among them is a major democratic activity. models that emphasize democratic process assume that the outcome of any educatinal experience is not completely predictable.” [author's emphasis]

ORIENTATION TO THE MODEL

            GOALS AND ASSUMPTIONS

In democracy and Education (1916), John Dewey recommends that the entire school be organized as a miniature democracy. Students participate in the development of the social system and through experience, gradually learn how to apply the scientific method to improve human society. This, Dewey feels, is the best preparation for citizenship in a democracy. John U. Michaelis (1963) has extracted from Dewey’s work a formulation specifically for teaching the social studies at the elementry level. Central to his method of teaching is the creation of a democratic group that defines and attacks problems of social significance.

Thelen (1960, p. 80) begins with a conception of a social being: “man (woman) who builds with other man (women) the rules and agreements that constitude social reality.”  [Reference to Thelen, H. (1960), Education and the human quest, University of Chicago Press.]

The classroom is analogous to the larger society. Teachers should seek to harness the energy naturally generated by the concern for creating the social order. The model of teaching replicates the negotiation pattern needed by society. Through negotiation the students study academic knowledge and engange in social problem solving. many followers and interpreters of Dewey overlook the underlying spirit that brings the democratic process to life.

BASIC CONCEPTS

The two concept of (1) inquiry and (2) knowledge are central to Thelen’s strategy.

INQUIRY

            Inquiry is stimulated by confrontation with a problem, and knowledge results from the inquiry. The social process enhances inquiry and is itself studied and improved. Because inquiry is basically a social process, students are aided in the self-observer role by interacting with, and by observing the reactions of, other puzzled people. but he points out that most of the energy — the measure of success — was the effectiveness of the television as a blend of entertainment and information giving.

the distinction between activity and inquiry:

inquiry must emanate from the motivations and curiosity of students. Activities cease to be inquiry when the teacher is the sole source of the problem identification and the formulation of plans,or when the end product of inquiry takes precedence over the inquiry process.

KNOWLEDGE

            The development of knowledge is the goal of inquiry, but Thelen uses knowledge in a special way: as the application of the universals and principles drawn from past experience to present experience.  The social aspects of group investigation provide a route, therefore, to disciplined academic inquiry.

As a group confronts a puzzling situation, the reactions of individuals vary widely, and the assumptive worlds that give rise to these varied reactions are even more different than the reactions themselves. The need to reconcile this difference generates a basic challenge. The newly perceived alternatives extend the student’s experience by serving both as a source of self-awareness and as a stimulus to his or her curiosity. Engaged in inquiry with a group, individuals become aware of different points of view that help them find out who they are by seeing themselves projected against the views of others.

OVERVIEW OF THE TEACHING STRATEGY

the original emotional conflict had led to the collection of new information, more disciplined analysis, and finally the development of an instrument for making judgments more objectively.

THE MODELS OF TEACHING

SYNTAX

            The models begins by confronting the students with a stimulating problem. If, the students react, the teacher draws their attention to the differences in the reactions. Next, students analyze  the required roles, organize themselves, act, and report their results. Finally the group evaluates its solution in terms of its original purposes.

Table 3.1

Phase One	Phase Two
Students encounter puzzling situation (planned or unplanned)	Students explore reaction to the situation
Phase Three	Phase Four
Students formulate study task and organize for study (problem definition, role, assignment, etc.)	Independent and group study
Phase Five	Phase Six
Students analyze progress and process	Reacycle activity

SOCIAL SYSTEM

The social system is democratic, governed by decisions developed from or at least validated by, the experience of the group.

SUPPORT SYSTEM

The support system for group investigation should be extensive and responsive to the needs of students.

APPLICATION

The more heterogeneous groups learn more, form more positive attitudes toward learning tasks, and become more positive toward one another (Slavin, 1983).

INSTRUCTIONAL AND NURTURANT EFFECTS

This model is highly versatile and comprehensive; it blends the goals of academic inquiry, social integration, and social-process learning. It can be used in all subject areas, with all age levels, when the teacher desires to emphasize the formulation and problem-solving aspects of knowledge rather than the intake of preorganized, predetermined information.

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